Foreign Relations

At a glance

Foreign relations in the Quran rest upon divine revelation rather than shifting political expedience or raw worldly gain. In the Quranic vision, political authority and statehood exist not as ends in themselves, but as purposeful trusts: to establish worship, protect vulnerable human lives, cultivate the earth with equity, and carry the compassionate message of truth to all people.

While conventional international relations often revolve around balance-of-power pragmatism, Quranic teachings introduce an ethical framework rooted in self-imposed divine accountability. Believers are called to uphold strict justice toward friend and foe alike, honor covenants faithfully even when power tempts them toward betrayal, and answer inclinations toward peaceful coexistence with trust in Allah.

By uniting external statecraft with internal spiritual conscience, foreign relations become a branch of moral living. Believers view humanity through the lens of shared origin and divine accountability, ensuring that peace is maintained with honor, defense is regulated by strict necessity, and justice remains an inviolable principle across every border.

Key verses

1. Al-Anfal 8:61: Believers are instructed to lean toward peace and enter into peaceful reconciliations when their adversaries incline toward it, anchoring their reliance and confidence firmly in Allah.
2. Al-Anfal 8:72: The religious duty to assist and rescue oppressed Muslims abroad is constrained by solemn treaties, forbidding military intervention against any nation that holds an active covenant with the Muslim polity.
3. Al-Hajj 22:41: Political empowerment and sovereignty are granted to establish prayer, deliver zakah, champion right conduct, and forbid wrongdoing, fulfilling the moral purpose of authority.
4. An-Nur 24:55: Earthly succession and security are promised to those who cultivate pure faith and righteous deeds, warning that neglect of this moral trust leads to fear and loss of strength.
5. An-Nisa 4:75: The Quran commands the defense and rescue of vulnerable men, women, and children suffering persecution under oppressive regimes as a primary justification for armed struggle.
6. Ali 'Imran 3:104: A dedicated body among the believers must arise to invite people to universal good, enjoin righteousness, and prevent evil, providing the spiritual basis for community leadership.
7. An-Nisa 4:59: Obedience is due to legitimate authorities who represent the community, with the crucial condition that disputes are always referred back to the guidance of Allah and His Messenger.
8. At-Tawbah 9:4: Solemn treaties made with other communities must be fulfilled to the very end of their agreed term, so long as the treaty partners uphold their commitments and refrain from hostile aid to enemies.

Words to know

العلاقات الدولية al-ʿalaqat al-dawliyyah

The network of ties, exchanges, and regulated covenants that occur across borders between independent states and sovereign communities.

القرية al-qaryah

An inhabited settlement or city-state, used in the Quran to represent a sovereign political entity in its most fundamental form.

Root: ق ر ي

السلم al-silm

The state of peace, reconciliation, and security that contrasts with armed conflict and forms an essential bond between nations.

Root: س ل م

Pillars of the Islamic state

From the paper: «مقومات الدولة الإسلامية»

A state consists of three foundational pillars recognized by legal scholars: a people, a distinct territory, and an organized governing authority. The Quran alludes to these pillars when vulnerable believers plead for rescue from their oppressive city An-Nisa 4:75, referencing its tyrannical inhabitants, its geographical boundary, and the need for a protective helper.

In the Islamic vision, the element of "the people" is expressed through the comprehensive Quranic concept of the Ummah: a unified body possessing an overarching vision of life, connected by faith rather than mere lineage, soil, or language Al-Baqarah 2:128, Al-Baqarah 2:213, Al-Anbiya 21:92, Al-Hujurat 49:13. The population living permanently under the state includes both Muslim citizens and protected non-Muslim citizens (Ahl al-Dhimmah), who enjoy the full preservation of life, property, honor, and religious freedom under the principle that they share the community's civil rights and obligations.

Historically, jurists categorized the world according to where Islamic governance prevailed, distinguishing between the Abode of Islam (Dar al-Islam), where Islamic law and security reign, and foreign territories (Dar al-Kufr), which may be bound by peaceful covenants (Dar al-ʿAhd) or remain in unaligned tension Al-Hashr 59:9, Al-A'raf 7:145. Authority is not an absolute right of kings; it is a sacred trust derived from the community via representation (niyabah) Ali 'Imran 3:104, An-Nisa 4:59, strictly bound to serve the public interest and uphold divine justice.

Functions of the Islamic state

From the paper: «وظائف الدولة الإسلامية»

The state in Islam is not an ultimate end in itself, but an indispensable instrument to realize higher spiritual and social objectives. Foremost among its functions is establishing comprehensive worship of Allah, ensuring that life in all its dimensions is directed toward divine pleasing Al-Hajj 22:41, Adh-Dhariyat 51:56-58. Worship is not restricted to formal rituals; every beneficial worldly endeavor, when undertaken with upright intention, becomes an act of devotion At-Tawbah 9:120-121.

Secondly, the state carries the universal responsibility of conveying the message of Islam to all humanity through wisdom and gracious admonition Saba 34:28, An-Nahl 16:125. The Prophet exemplarily discharged this by dispatching emissaries and letters to regional sovereigns, such as the Roman Emperor and the Negus of Abyssinia, establishing ethical contact before all else Ali 'Imran 3:64.

Thirdly, the state must eliminate oppression and safeguard the weak An-Nisa 4:75. Warfare is permitted strictly as legitimate defense, governed by two legal conditions: necessity, meaning fighting occurs only in response to active aggression Al-Baqarah 2:190, Al-Baqarah 2:193, and proportionality, forbidding any excess or transgression Al-Baqarah 2:194. Furthermore, the state is charged with cultivating the earth (ʿimarat al-ard) in harmony with divine values Al-Baqarah 2:30, Hud 11:61, warning against material civilization that strips humanity of moral consciousness and leads to historical ruin Ar-Rum 30:9-10.

Means of fulfilling state functions

From the paper: «وسائل تحقيق وظائف الدولة»

To carry out its sweeping responsibilities, the Islamic state does not limit its role to passive preservation, such as merely stopping internal crime or protecting border perimeter integrity. Its higher mandate is instituting an active system of social justice rooted in the Quran.

The state employs a multifaceted array of instruments adapted to evolving circumstances. It utilizes political and legal governance, mass education and character development, moral persuasion through public pulpits, and the constructive influence of societal institutions. Because the comprehensive scope of Islamic teachings touches every aspect of human civilization, public administration is divided into specialized governmental departments, such as the judiciary, military defense, public treasury, and public welfare.

These administrative divisions are not rigidly fixed by explicit scriptural texts. Rather, their structures and procedures are deliberately left open to human experience, customary development, and the shifting requirements of public welfare (maslahah). In every era, public authorities hold the flexibility to introduce new offices and administrative tools, provided they serve the overarching objective of procuring genuine benefit, averting harm, and upholding equity.

Relations of the Islamic state with other states

From the paper: «علاقة الدولة الإسلامية بالدول الأخرى»

The primary relationship between an Islamic polity and foreign nations is neither perpetual peace nor endless warfare; it is fundamentally a relationship of inviting to truth (daʿwah). The state meets other nations with an open hand, inviting them to universal moral and spiritual clarity without compulsion Al-A'raf 7:30, Muhammad 47:3, At-Taghabun 64:2.

Subsequent diplomatic stances depend entirely on the posture adopted by other powers toward this invitation: nations that maintain peaceful coexistence and do not wage war are met with benevolence and equity Al-Mumtahanah 60:8, while hostile states that initiate oppression and exile believers are resisted Al-Mumtahanah 60:9. Islam fundamentally cherishes peace in its very identity, divine naming, and social greetings Al-Baqarah 2:208, Ibrahim 14:23, Al-Hashr 59:23.

Foreign individuals entering Muslim territory for trade, diplomatic diplomacy, or to examine Islam are granted absolute protection through safety pacts (aman) At-Tawbah 9:6. Such visitors may not be harmed or detained. Even when non-Muslim populations have not embraced Islam, classical jurisprudence insists that military engagement is strictly unlawful until the message has been properly conveyed, ensuring that armed conflict is never an end in itself, but the gravest, final recourse against systematic injustice Al-Isra 17:15, An-Nahl 16:125, Al-Qasas 28:47.

Treaties between the Islamic state and others

From the paper: «العهود بين الدولة الإسلامية وغيرها»

International treaties represent a cornerstone of Islamic foreign relations, serving to stabilize peaceful coexistence. The Quran explicitly sanctifies entering into covenants when an adversary seeks peace Al-Anfal 8:61, An-Nisa 4:92. Treaties must meet strict legal criteria: they must be concluded by legitimate state leadership, founded on mutual consent An-Nisa 4:29, serve the genuine public welfare of the community Muhammad 47:35, conform to Islamic moral boundaries, and possess clear temporal limits.

Once ratified, the obligation to fulfill treaties is absolute and binding across all dimensions of governance Al-Ma'idah 5:1, An-Nahl 16:91-92, Al-Isra 17:34. The Quran severely condemns treachery, warning against breaking agreements for geopolitical expedience or temporary gain Al-Anfal 8:55-56, At-Tawbah 9:12-13.

Remarkably, the sanctity of an international treaty overrides even the duty of military intervention to rescue oppressed Muslims residing within the treaty partner's borders Al-Anfal 8:72. Treaties may only terminate through expiration of their term, explicit mutual agreement, proven active treachery by the other party, or when the state formally notifies the other party on equal terms before taking defensive measures Al-Anfal 8:58, At-Tawbah 9:4.

Distinctive merits of the Islamic state

From the paper: «مزايا الدولة الإسلامية»

The Islamic state is distinguished from conventional empires by distinct moral characteristics. Foremost is authentic earthly stewardship (istikhlaf), which is granted only on condition that authority is deployed to construct, reform, and elevate moral life rather than sow tyranny or destruction An-Nur 24:55, Al-Hajj 22:39-41.

Its second distinguishing virtue is uncompromising justice, transcending sectarian bias and racial privilege Al-Hadid 57:25, Al-Hijr 15:85. The Quran commands justice even toward bitter adversaries Al-Ma'idah 5:8, memorably demonstrated when revelation descended to clear a Jewish resident who had been falsely accused of theft by a local Muslim family An-Nisa 4:105-107. History records that Muslim judges ordered the Muslim army to withdraw from Samarkand simply because it had entered without providing prior notification required by divine law.

Thirdly, the state liberates human beings from subservience to worldly despots, restoring supreme sovereignty to Allah alone Az-Zukhruf 43:84, Yusuf 12:40, Ali 'Imran 3:64, At-Tawbah 9:31. Furthermore, it actively unlocks the spiritual, physical, and intellectual capacities of its people, calling for diligent preparation of material strength, deterrence, and disciplined resolve to preserve peace and deter external aggression Al-Anfal 8:60, An-Nisa 4:95, Ali 'Imran 3:200.

Foundations of international relations in Islam

From the paper: «أسس العلاقات الدولية في الإسلام»

International relations in Islam rest upon integrated creedal and ethical pillars that differentiate them from secular frameworks. At the theological level, the doctrine of divine oneness (tawhid) frees humanity from fear of tyrannical world powers, instilling the realization that true sovereignty and dominion belong exclusively to Allah Al-Anfal 8:61, An-Nisa 4:75, At-Tawbah 9:4.

This theological foundation generates a dual legal dimension in all external affairs: a judicial aspect (qada'i), which evaluates external compliance and formal treaties according to outward standards, and a spiritual-religious aspect (diyani), which holds rulers and diplomats accountable before Allah for their hidden intentions and real integrity.

On the ethical level, statecraft is inseparable from universal moral norms. Islamic law insists upon preserving fundamental human dignity, strictly outlawing treacherous deception even against enemies who have acted faithlessly. In armed defense, it categorically forbids the mutilation of bodies, the targeting of women, children, and non-combatants, and the reckless use of indiscriminate destruction. Because these rules are religious duties, compliance does not depend on international pressure; it is an internal moral imperative that binds the state even when facing bad-faith actors.

Characteristics of international relations in Islam

From the paper: «خصائص العلاقات الدولية في الإسلام»

Islamic international jurisprudence exhibits unique qualities that elevate it above shifting human agreements. Primarily, its ultimate source is divine revelation through the Quran and prophetic guidance Ash-Shura 42:52-53, An-Najm 53:1-4, Al-A'raf 7:54, ensuring that core humanitarian rules remain sheltered from political opportunism.

Secondly, Islamic international law addresses both the individual and the state Al-Hujurat 49:13, Ali 'Imran 3:104. Every human being is recognized as an immediate legal personality holding inherent rights, whereas conventional international law historically recognized only sovereign governments. An individual Muslim citizen, for instance, can grant temporary asylum (aman) to a foreign visitor, and the state must honor it At-Tawbah 9:6.

Thirdly, international obligations form an organic part of the unified Islamic legal code rather than an isolated external sphere; the domestic law and international law of Islam draw from the identical moral fountain Al-Anfal 8:72.

Fourthly, compliance relies upon self-imposed religious duty (iltizam dhati). Believers fulfill obligations because Allah commands truthfulness, not merely out of fear of sanctions. Finally, foreign affairs are strictly bounded by divine legality: aggressive wars for wealth, colonial expansion, or resources are utterly unlawful, and military action is justified solely to remove tyranny and establish justice Al-Ma'idah 5:2.

Takeaways

1. Sanctity of Promises and Treaties

   Honoring agreements is not a political calculation to be discarded when an advantage appears; it is a sacred trust. Whether in personal contracts, workplace commitments, or international accords, a believer never resorts to treachery, even when dealing with those who breach faith.

2. Justice Transcends Emotional Bias

   Divine law forbids letting resentment or past enmity push you into unfair conduct. Strive to embody equitable treatment toward all individuals regardless of their religious, ethnic, or political background, remembering that justice is closest to true piety.

3. Active Defense of the Vulnerable

   Strength and authority in the Quran exist to shield the weak from oppression. Believers should cultivate empathy, advocacy, and tangible support for persecuted men, women, and children across the globe within every lawful avenue.

4. Embracing Peaceful Reconciliation

   Whenever adversaries demonstrate a genuine desire for peace, believers should readily welcome it while placing their trust in Allah. Genuine strength lies in seeking security and human welfare rather than prolonging unnecessary conflict.

Reflect

• How does recognizing that all human beings share a common origin reshape how you view foreign nations and different cultures?
• In what areas of your personal or professional life are you tempted to compromise on an agreement, and how can the Quranic insistence on treaty fulfillment guide you?
• When you experience conflict or hostility from someone, how can you practice the Quranic standard of not allowing enmity to lead you away from justice?
• What practical steps can you take in your daily life to advocate for and support vulnerable, oppressed people around the world?

Go deeper

Linguistic meaning

Derived from the root ʿ-l-q, signifying something attaching, hanging, or clinging to a higher thing; the term was extended to describe intellectual, emotional, or practical connections between parties.

Technical meaning

A state refers to a community of people residing permanently within a defined geographic territory, governed by a unified authority.

How it differs from related terms

القرية The Settlement or City-State

While both refer to an organized political society, the Quran uses 'al-qaryah' to depict a state in its most concentrated, fundamental historical form: an inhabited urban center functioning as a sovereign city-state. Modern terminology broadens the concept of the state to encompass extensive territories and complex institutional apparatuses.

السلم Peace

Foreign relations represent the overarching legal and diplomatic interactions between nations, which encompass conditions of negotiation, alliance, defensive war, and peace. 'Al-silm' represents a specific, highly valued state within foreign relations, characterized by mutual security, stability, and the complete cessation of hostilities.

Every verse in the paper

All 147 verses the research paper discusses, grouped under its own headings.

Related terms «الألفاظ ذات الصلة»

6:123

Pillars of the Islamic state «مقومات الدولة الإسلامية»

These three pillars «وهذه المقومات الثلاثة هي»

4:75

Meanings of the word Ummah in the Quran «وجاءت كلمة «الأمة» في القرآن الكريم على عشرة أوجه(17). أربعةٌ منها تتصل بهذا المعنى الذي نريده في هذا الموضع»

2:128, 7:159, 2:134, 3:113, 5:66, 6:38, 2:213, 10:19, 5:48, 21:92, 49:13, 2:1-5, 49:10, 8:72, 9:29, 60:7

Division of the realm of disbelief «ودار الكفر تقسم إلى قسمين»

59:9, 7:145, 11:65

Numerous other verses «وغيرها من الآيات كثير.»

3:104, 4:59, 5:1

Functions of the Islamic state «وظائف الدولة الإسلامية»

Two fundamental functions of the state «إن الدولة ليست غاية في ذاتها، وإنما هي وسيلة لغاية. فهي تقوم بوظيفتين أساسيتين»

22:41

Summary of key state functions «وفي النقاط الآتية إيجازٌ لأهم الوظائف التي تقوم بها الدولة، ويمكن أن ينطوي فيها وظائف أخرى، فالقضية اصطلاحية»

38:27, 3:191, 23:115, 51:56-58, 9:120-121

Numerous verses on this matter «والآيات في ذلك كثيرة تعز على الحصر.»

51:56, 25:1, 17:1

Serving as an embellishment «والثالث: أن تكون تحسينية.»

82:13-14, 5:3, 34:28, 7:158, 38:87, 6:19, 15:94, 12:108, 96:1, 16:125, 3:64, 60:8-9, 2:190, 2:193-194

Two conditions for legitimate defense in Quranic verses «وتشير الآيات الكريمة إلى شرطين في الدفاع الشرعي»

2:194, 4:75, 8:72, 2:30, 17:18-20, 22:41, 24:55, 10:14, 11:61, 21:105-106

Practicing believers as righteous servants «فالمؤمنون العاملون هم العباد الصالحون.»

30:9-10

Relations of the Islamic state with other states «علاقة الدولة الإسلامية بالدول الأخرى»

7:30, 47:3, 64:2

Relations of the Islamic state in peace and war «وعلاقة الدولة الإسلامية بالدول الأخرى ومظاهر هذه العلاقة سيتم تناوله حالي السلم والحرب فيما يأتي»

2:143, 3:110, 2:208, 14:23, 97:1-5, 59:23, 9:6, 60:8, 60:9, 17:15, 16:125, 28:47, 9:123, 22:78

Treaties between the Islamic state and others «العهود بين الدولة الإسلامية وغيرها»

8:61, 4:92, 4:29, 47:35, 4:59, 7:3

Effects of international treaties on third parties «آثار المعاهدات الدولية على غير الأطراف»

4:89-90

Treaty termination through explicit or implied breach «وتنتهي المعاهدة كذلك إذا نقضها المعاهدون من الأعداء صراحةً أو دلالةً، ويكون هذا النقض بواحد من أمرين يدلان على ذلك»

8:58, 5:1, 9:4, 16:91-92, 17:34, 8:55-56, 2:100, 9:12-13, 8:72, 9:7, 8:60-62

Distinctive merits of the Islamic state «مزايا الدولة الإسلامية»

Numerous characteristics and merits «وهي خصائص ومزايا كثيرة، ومنها»

24:55

The reality of vicegerency on earth «فما حقيقة الاستخلاف في الأرض؟»

24:55, 22:39-41, 7:10, 12:56, 57:25, 15:85, 30:8, 46:3, 4:135, 4:3, 6:152, 49:9, 4:58

Evidence establishing this principle through multiple means «وقد تضافرت الأدلة الشرعية والعقلية والواقع التاريخي العملي على تقرير هذا المبدأ والدعوة إليه بوسائل متعددة»

16:90, 5:42, 5:8, 4:105-107, 43:84, 12:40, 3:64, 9:31, 49:15, 24:55, 3:195, 103:1-3, 2:143

Inviting others to this methodology and its motives «وهو يؤديها ثانية في دعوة الآخرين إلى هذا المنهج وبيانه لهم. مسوقًا في هذه الدعوة وهذا البيان بدوافع كثيرة»

22:40-41, 12:21, 8:60, 4:95, 2:195

The strongest instruments of jihad «يعني أنها أقوى آلات الجهاد.»

3:200, 8:65, 3:149

Foundations of international relations in Islam «أسس العلاقات الدولية في الإسلام»

8:61, 4:75, 9:4, 5:8

Characteristics of international relations in Islam «خصائص العلاقات الدولية في الإسلام»

1. Rooted in divine revelation «1. مرجعها الوحي.»

42:52-53, 53:1-4, 7:54

2. Encompassing the individual and the state «2. تشمل الفرد والدولة.»

49:13, 5:67, 3:104

3. An integral part of Islamic rulings «3. جزء من الأحكام الإسلامية.»

8:72

4. Based on self-imposed commitment «4. مبنية على الالتزام الذاتي.»

9:6

5. Governed by Islamic law «5. مقيدة بالشرع.»

5:2

About this source

Volume

12

Research paper

«العلاقات الدولية» (Foreign Relations)

Read the full paper (Arabic)

Encyclopedia of Thematic Tafsir of the Noble Quran, published by the Tafsir Center for Quranic Studies.

This study guide summarizes the Arabic research paper. For full scholarly detail, refer to the original. This preview has not been reviewed yet.

Related topics

• Economy الاقتصاد
• Warfare الحرب
• Reconciliation السلم
• Governance السياسة
• Social Relations العلاقات الاجتماعية